Origin of the Celts

The search for the Celtic descent of the Irish will cover a huge time span and an immense geographical area. This quest starts around 2500 BCE on the Iberian Peninsula with the Bell Beakers, and via the Hallstatt and La Tène culture of Central Europe we will finally arrive on Ireland somewhere around 50 BCE.

Culture	Era
Bell Beakers	2600	-	1900	BCE
Únětice culture	2300	-	1600	BCE
Tumulus culture	1600	-	1200	BCE
Urnfield culture	1200	-	750	BCE
Hallstatt culture	1200	-	500	BCE
La Tène culture	500	-	50	BCE

Out of reach of the Roman culture, which dominated the European mainland and the south of Britain, Ireland became some sort of sanctuary for the Celtic culture in which the Ogham Alphabet and the Brehon Law blossomed and flourished.

We guarantee that the journey is educational yet pleasant, but we can not claim that our impression of things is the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. As usual in these matters theories are disputed by scientists and new points of view are published on an almost daily basis. We are not the right persons to settle the disputes and it is impossible for us to keep pace with every new theory.
Furthermore we have to inform you that the succession of cultures is just an academic model enabling us to grasp the course of European history during the Bronze Age. In the absence of eyewitness reports this model solely relies on archaeological excavations and interpretations. Obviously this unilateral approach is not flawless. An archaeologist can draw a truthful floor plan of a dwelling, but the exact appearance of the roof is - notwithstanding his higher education - guesswork. We can pursue this comparison to the terms culture and tribes.
Until the fifth century BCE we can only tell the result of the burial ceremonies of the various cultures (i.e. people were buried in flat graves, beneath tumuli or cremated), but we have no idea what took place at the graveside (i.e. who attended the burial, was the burial a merry passage rite or a mournful final farewell ceremony, did they prey and if so how and to whom or what). It is possible that, although the result of the ceremony was similar over a large geographical area, the ceremony itself varied from valley to valley and from hilltop to hilltop. The difference between result and reason is - a bit simplified - the difference between a culture and a tribe. As a result it is virtually impossible to identify tribes in Central Europe before they made contact with the writing Greeks in the fifth century BCE.

Bell Beakers

Civilisation, defined by the presence of agriculture and raising animals, reached Europe in Greece about 6000 BCE and initially spreads alongside the rivers Danube and Rhine to the north and west. The basic metalworking skills started to appear around 4600 BCE in the south-east of Europe. In the course of the next millennium these skills spread over Europe, but did not exceed the level of experimenting. Seemingly the people failed to fully comprehend and control the complex process.
By 2600 BCE, when flint was still the favourable material for tools in Europe, more advanced metalworking skills emerged on the Iberian Peninsula, current Spain and Portugal. Besides copper utensils, like axe and adze heads and punches, these people created decorative and conceivable religious objects from copper and precious metals such as silver and gold. With these people, named Bell Beakers after their distinctive bell-shaped pottery, Europe left the Stone Ages and entered the Bronze Age.

The insatiable need for copper and tin ore, the main ingredients of bronze, triggered a migration wave of the Bell Beakers from the Iberian Peninsula. By travelling through Europe they spread their skills and artefact as far as the modern day Czech Republic in the east, North Africa in the south and Britain in the north. On Britain these Bell Beakers built Stonehenge, an unmistakable signal of their presence and skills.
From that moment onwards the Bell Beakers mingled with the existing local population and vanished as a distinctive tribe. Their skills and burial rituals however survived in a culture which continued to bear their name.

Due to their highly developed metalworking skills, the decorated artefacts, the individual burying of the deaths and burial offerings, which might indicate some sort of social stratification, the Bell Beaker tribe, or at least their culture, is commonly considered the ancestor of the Celtic culture. The term proto-Celts is used by some authors to describe this close relation, although the strict meaning of that term only refers to the language.

Between the Bell Beaker culture and the Hallstatt culture, which is considered the first Celtic culture, is a gap of approximately one millennium. During these years human development in Europe accelerated, simply because working the field had become much easier by the use of bronze tools. Forests were chopped, irrigation canals dug and the fields yield rich harvests. The overall standard of living improved and the population increased dramatically.
The focal point of human development in Europe was located in Central Europe. Additional to the pleasant climate and natural resources this area was located on the crossroads of Asia Minor and Europe, an area where migrants from all corners met and exchanged ideas and recently acquired techniques.

Zooming in on Central Europe scientists distinguish three intermediate stages between the Bell Beaker culture and the Hallstatt culture: the Únětice, or Unetice, culture (circa 2300 until 1600 BCE), the Tumulus culture (approximately 1600 until 1200 BCE) and finally the Urnfield culture (roughly from 1200 until 750 BCE).

Únětice Culture

Sky Disc of Nebra: Fake or Real?

The Sky Disc was discovered in 1999 together with two swords and some jewellery, by two amateurs using metal detectors near the German city Nebra. Instead of handing their findings over to the authorities, as required by German law, the finders tried to sell the Sky Disc to several museums in Germany until they were arrested in Basel, Switzerland, for handling stolen goods.

To avoid imprisonment the accused first tried to convince the judge that the actual finding place was not Nebra, but somewhere in the Czech Republic. This would get them off the hook because the laws in the Czech Republic in this matter are less stringent. Unfortunately for them the judge decided otherwise and they were convicted.
The amateur archaeologists lodged an appeal. Now they argued in their defence that the Sky Disc was found neither in Germany, nor in the Czech Republic, but recently fabricated (apparently they found the sentence for attempted fraud more bearable).

Expert witnesses were called in both trials. All of them gave the disc a thorough examination, but were unable to settle the dispute. Their conclusions covered the whole range from undoubtedly genuine, via manufactured in Siberia, approximately 100 or 200 years ago, to clearly faked, the bronze shows traces of mechanical treatment and the green patina is fabricated using acid, urine and a blowtorch (please don't ask).
Hence: the Sky Disc of Nebra is either an extremely well-done hoax, an antique but not ancient Russian work of art, or an unique artefact from the Bronze Age.

Source: The Guardian

The Únětice culture, named after a small village south of Prague, appeared around 2300 BCE. These people did not only brought metalworking to a higher level, but apparently the application of their skills shifted as many artefacts are suggesting an ornamental or ceremonial use. The typical triangular daggers for example are delightful to the eye, but highly impractical in combat. This might point to a rather peaceful and wealthy society, which was not too preoccupied with survival. Therefore the people in the Únětice culture were able to apply themselves to other activities.
In many aspects the Únětice culture continued where the Bell Beakers had pulled out. Trade, and especially the ore trade with Britain, intensified and the already existing social stratification expanded, by which the degree of communal organisation also increased. In other aspects, such as astronomy, the Únětice culture broke new grounds.

The Sky Disc of Nebra is one of the most remarkable objects attributed to the Únětice culture. This bronze disc, with gold-leaf appliqués allegedly representing 32 stars, the crescent moon, the full moon (or the sun) and shapes that might resembling boats, is dated to 1600 BCE and is therefore the oldest depiction of the cosmos. Honesty compels us to admit that the authenticity of the disc is challenged.
If the Sky Disc of Nebra is authentic we still have no idea about its purpose. As usual, when it comes to ancient cultures and the cosmos, literature and the Internet are swarming with theories. Unfortunately most of these theories gives us mainly some insight in the mind of whoever came up with the idea then in the Sky Disc.

The official idea is that a group of seven dots near the centre of the disc represents the star cluster Pleiades. In fact the Pleiades consist of several thousand stars, but in ancient times only the brightest seven were visible and thus known. Around 1600 BCE the rising Pleiades and the crescent moon heralded the spring equinox, while the setting Pleiades and a full moon announced the autumnal equinox. In other words: the Sky Disc could have been some sort of an ancient Post-It to remember the farmers when to sow and when to harvest.
This assessment might seem disappointing, but nevertheless it caused an earthquake in scientific circles. The Pleiades were important agrarian markers in Mesopotamia and Greece a thousand years after the Sky Disc of Nebra was supposedly created. Besides, the only connection between the Pleiades and the Bronze Age farmers in Central Europe is this controversial object. If the Pleiades meant so much for these people one might expect more relations.
More level-headed scholars suggesting that the disc is a randomly decorated piece of armour used to protect the heart and lungs of the bearer and has no relation with astrology whatsoever.

In general the burial rituals of the Únětice culture appear similar to those of the Bell Beakers. The deaths were positioned on their side in a foetal position and, surrounded with pottery, weapons and jewellery, buried in flat individual graves. In the western parts of the Únětice area however stone cairns were raised.

Tumulus Culture

Around 1600 BCE the Únětice culture started to change. The most visible are the changes in the burial rituals. The flat graves disappeared and round burial mounds, from which this culture derived its name, became fashionable. This habit was probably introduces by migrates from the steppes in the east.
Less obvious are the gradual changes in the nature of the people. The Únětice folks seemed quite pleased with their territory, whereas the Tumulus people expanded their habitat and in the process their cultural centre was pushed westwards. Because further development went off without a hitch and the trade expanded to the east it is assumed that peaceful migration was the mean instrument for this expansion.

Towards the end of the second millennium BCE the Tumulus culture made a sudden swing. The once peaceful culture applied itself to the manufacturing of heavy duty weapons, armouring and shields. The mainly decorative triangular daggers, relics from the Únětice culture, were replaced permanently by heavy bronze slashing swords. Militarisation had become the motto of the Tumulus folk. In the wake of military style leadership and the first ever standing army, probably made up from full-time warriors, fortified settlements appeared.

Urnfield Culture

Around 1200 BCE a small riddle took place in Central Europe.
On one hand the round burial mounds gradually passed into disuse, instead more and more deaths were cremated and their ashes was put in pots which were then buried. We are cleared by the proper authorities to inform you that the name of this culture, the Urnfield culture, is derived from this burial method. Although this completely different burial method must have been inspired by religious reforms there is no sign of excessive violence or suppression. In the contrary, for a long time burials and cremations were practised beside one another.
On the other hand this religious tolerant society is the prime suspect for the havoc that took place in the eastern Mediterranean at the same time. Tribes from the North served the final punch to the Mycenaean and Hittite civilisations, Greece was invaded by a tribe referred to as Xanthoi, or the Golden Ones, and hostile bands of tall, fair-haired warriors surface in the Egyptian records.

With the above in mind it is not surprising that the Urnfield culture continued with the militarisation and stratification of society. They excelled in the building of hill forts. Halls, probably meeting places for king-like figures and their band of warriors, were built.
Despite the urge to expand their sphere of influence the Urnfield people did not neglect their artistic side. Artefacts from this culture already bear the characteristics of what is commonly known as early-Celtic art. Further it is assumed that the language used by the Urnfield people has evolved in the linguistic family which includes the Celtic language. For lack of tape recorders (for the youngsters: the tape recorder was the forerunner of the mp3-player with voice recorder) in that era this assumption is purely based on names of places in the former Urnfield territory and on the names of trees given to some letters of the Ogham alphabet. Mainly due to this alleged linguistic relation the Urnfield people are called proto-Celts.
If there is a survivor of the Urnfield culture still alive today it must be frustrating for him to find out that his culture is classified as proto-Celtic, instead of Celtic, only because of one academic niggling threshold: the inability to forge iron.

Hallstatt Culture

The first signs of the Hallstatt culture appeared around 1200 BCE, which is simultaneously with the Urnfield culture. For centuries the two people lived side by side and even real experts have difficulties to determine whether an artefact belongs to the Hallstatt culture or the Urnfield people.
The Hallstatt folk, named after the village in Austria were an immense burial site was discovered, did not master the art of iron forging until circa 800 BCE. Around 800 BCE the Hallstatt culture seriously started to experiment with iron. These experiments paid off and iron forging had surpassed the fiddling stage and became a full-grown expertise. This so-called Hallstatt C culture raised a bridge between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age in Europe. The well provided burial mounds of the upper-classes indicate that at least a part of the society took full advantage of the technological lead. However, with the increasing wealth also the urge to protect richness and resources increased. As a result fortified settlements were built in nowadays Austria and Switzerland.
Due to their iron forging capabilities the Hallstatt C culture is generally considered as the first Celtic culture.

The period of transition from Bronze Age to full-bloomed Iron Age lasted about 200 years and is reflected by the use of both iron as bronze swords as gifts for the deaths. With the appearance of the Hallstatt D culture, approximately 600 BCE, bronze had become an obsolete material and was almost completely replaced by iron. Compared with Hallstatt C the focal point of the Hallstatt D culture was more westwards, probably to get near the trade routes and the new Greek colony of Massilia, nowadays Marseilles in France.
Despite the business relations the Greeks had a low opinion of this northern culture to which they referred to as Keltoi, meaning Hidden People or Barbarians. This designation is inconsistent with the mentioning of a town named Nyrax, probably current Noreia in Austria, because city life needs a degree of civilisation which exceeds the barbarian level.

The Hallstatt D culture was granted only a short life. For reasons unknown the fortifications were abandoned in the fifth century BCE and scanty burials replaced the rich and labour-intensive burial mounds.

La Tène Culture

The La Tène culture, named after an archaeological site in Switzerland, emerged around 500 BCE just north of the point of gravity of the declining Hallstatt D culture. The La Tène culture is a Celtic culture to such a degree that it is often referred to as simply Celts.
The La Tène people are primarily known for their unique art. Apparently no object was allowed to leave the smithy without being decorated with flowing S-shaped and C-shaped designs and animal-like creatures. Under Roman domination these typical designs disappeared from the European mainland, but on Ireland they remained intact. Even nowadays these designs are frequently used because of their typical traditional Irish look-and-feel.

Unfortunately their artistic expressions overshadow the other achievements of the La Tène folks. In matters of power, social and military organisation, technology and influence they competed with the Greeks, Etruscans and at a later stage the Romans. Occasionally they lived up to their status by engaging the Romans and Greeks in battle.
At the end of the day however the Celts were more passionate than rational and proofed unable to withstand the fast expanding Roman Empire. Pushed ahead by the Romans they flocked together in the coastal areas of Western Europe. Around 50 BCE the last Celts were pushed over the edge and ended up on Ireland. In their new homeland, unaffected by the pushy Romans, the Celtic culture experienced its first revival.